Xylocaine 2% Plain Injection

MDV: Lidocaine hydrochloride. Polyamp: Lignocaine hydrochloride.

MDV: Xylocaine solution for injection is a sterile, isotonic aqueous solution. The pH of the solution is 5.0 - 7.0.
Polyamp: The active ingredient in XYLOCAINE is lignocaine hydrochloride.
The CAS number for lignocaine hydrochloride (AAN) is 6108-05-0 and lignocaine hydrochloride anhydrous is 73-78-9.
The chemical name for lignocaine hydrochloride is 2-Diethylaminoaceto-2'6'-xylidide. The Australian Approved Name is lignocaine hydrochloride.
Lignocaine is classed as a membrane stabilising agent and is a local anaesthetic of the amide type. It is extremely stable and plain solutions can be sterilised by autoclaving, repeated a maximum of two times if necessary.
Plain aqueous solutions are sterile, isotonic and contain lignocaine hydrochloride, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide for pH adjustment and water for injections. XYLOCAINE solutions contain no antimicrobial agent and should be used only once and any residue discarded.
Plain aqueous solutions of lignocaine hydrochloride have a pH of 5.0 - 7.0 (approx.). Lignocaine base has a pKa of 7.85 (25°C), an oil/water coefficient of 2.9 and a molecular weight of 234.3.
Excipients/Inactive Ingredients: MDV: 1 ml solution for injection contains: Sodium chloride 6 mg (tonicity contributor), methyl parahydroxybenzoate 1 mg (preservative), sodium hydroxide/hydrochloric acid (to pH 5.0-7.0), water for injections to 1 ml.

Pharmacotherapeutic group: Local anaesthetics. ATC code: N01B B02.
Pharmacology: Polyamp: Lignocaine, like other local anaesthetics, causes a reversible blockade of impulse propagation along nerve fibres by preventing the inward movement of sodium ions through the nerve membrane. Local anaesthetics of the amide type are thought to act within the sodium channels of the nerve membrane.
Local anaesthetic drugs may have similar effects on excitable membranes in the brain and myocardium. If excessive amounts of drug reach the systemic circulation rapidly, symptoms and signs of toxicity will appear, emanating mainly from the central nervous system and cardiovascular systems.
Central nervous system toxicity usually precedes the cardiovascular effects as it occurs at lower plasma concentrations. Direct effects of local anaesthetics on the heart include slow conduction, negative inotropism and eventually cardiac arrest.
Indirect cardiovascular effects, e.g. hypotension and bradycardia, may occur after epidural or spinal administration depending on the extent of the concomitant sympathetic block.
Pharmacodynamics: MDV: Xylocaine contains lidocaine, which is a local anaesthetic of the amide type. Lidocaine reversibly blocks impulse conduction in the nerve fibres by inhibiting the transport of sodium ions through the nerve membrane. Similar effects can also be seen on excitatory membranes in the brain and myocardium.
Lidocaine has a rapid onset of effect, a high anaesthetic frequency and low toxicity. Lower concentrations of lidocaine have less effect on motor nerve fibres.
Pharmacokinetics: MDV: The rate of absorption is dependent on dose, route of administration and perfusion at the injection site.
Intercostal blockades produce the highest plasma concentrations (approx. 1.5 micrograms/ml per 100 mg injected), while subcutaneous injections in the abdomen produce the lowest plasma concentrations (approx. 0.5 micrograms/ml per 100 mg injected). The volume of distribution in steady state is 91 litres, and plasma protein binding, which is predominantly to alpha-1-acid glycoprotein, is 65%.
Absorption is total and bi-phasic from the epidural space with half-lives of about 9.3 minutes and 82 minutes. The slow absorption is the time-limiting factor in the elimination of lidocaine, which explains the slower elimination after epidural injection, compared with intravenous injection.
Lidocaine is eliminated predominantly through metabolism. Dealkylation to monoethyl-glycinexylidide (MEGX) is mediated mainly by cytochrome P450 3A4. MEGX is metabolised to 2,6-xylidine and glycinexylidide (GX) 2,6-dimethylaniline is metabolised further by CYP2A6 to 4-hydroxy-2,6-dimethylaniline, which is the major metabolite in the urine (80%) and is excreted as conjugate. MEGX has a convulsant activity equivalent to that of lidocaine, while GX is devoid of convulsant activity. MEGX appears to occur in similar plasma concentrations as the parent substance. The elimination rates of lidocaine and MEGX after an intravenous bolus dose are approx. 1.5-2 and 2.5 hours, respectively.
On account of the rapid hepatic metabolism, the kinetics are sensitive to all alterations in liver function.
The half-life can be more than doubled in patients with impaired liver function. Impaired renal function does not affect the kinetics, but can increase the accumulation of metabolites.
Lidocaine crosses the placenta and the concentration of free lidocaine is the same in the mother and the foetus. However, the total plasma concentration is lower in the foetus, which has a lower degree of protein binding.
Polyamp: Lignocaine has a rapid onset and a medium duration of action. The onset of action is 1 - 5 minutes following infiltration and 5 to 15 minutes following other types of administration.
The rate of absorption depends upon the dose, the route of administration and the vascularity of the injection site. Intercostal blocks give the highest peak plasma concentrations (approximately 1.5 μg/mL for every 100 mg injected), while abdominal subcutaneous injections give the lowest (approx. 0.5 μg/mL per 100 mg injected). Epidural and major nerve block produce peak plasma levels intermediate between these.
Absorption of lignocaine from the epidural space occurs in 2 phases; the first phase is in the order of 9 minutes and the second is approximately 82 minutes. The slow absorption is the rate-limiting step in the elimination of lignocaine, which also explains the apparent elimination half-life following epidural injection is longer than after intravenous administration.
The plasma binding of lignocaine is dependent on drug concentration, and the fraction bound decreases with increasing concentration. At concentrations of 1 to 4 μg of free base/mL, 60 - 80% of lignocaine is protein bound. Binding is also dependent on the plasma concentration of the α1-acid glycoprotein.
Lignocaine crosses the blood-brain and placental barriers by passive diffusion. Since the degree of plasma protein binding in the foetus is less than in the mother, although free lignocaine concentrations will be the same, the total plasma concentration will be greater in the mother.
Lignocaine has a total plasma clearance of 0.95 L/min, a volume of distribution at steady state of 91 L, an elimination half-life of 1.6 hr and an estimated hepatic extraction ratio of 0.65. Approximately 90% of a parenteral dose of lignocaine is rapidly metabolised in the liver by de-ethylation to form monoethylglycinexylidide (MEGX) and glycinexylidide (GX) followed by cleavage of the amide bond to form xylidine and 4-hydroxyxylidine which are excreted in the urine. Less than 10% of a dose is excreted unchanged in the urine.
The principal metabolites, MEGX and GX also possess pharmacological activity. The rate of metabolism of lignocaine appears to be limited by liver blood flow which may be reduced in patients after acute myocardial infarction and/or congestive heart failure. The rate of lignocaine metabolism may also be reduced in patients with liver or hepatic tissue necrosis, possibly because of altered perfusion.
The duration of action depends upon the concentration used, the dose given, the nerves to be blocked and the status of the patient. The 2% solution will produce an effect for 1½ - 2 hrs when given epidurally, and up to 5 hrs when given as a peripheral nerve block.

MDV: Lidocaine can be used for most major nerve blocks, e.g. sciatic and retrobulbar.
Polyamp: XYLOCAINE solutions are indicated for the production of local anaesthesia by epidural block.

MDV: Adults and children above 12 yrs of age: Xylocaine should only be used by physicians with experience of regional anaesthesia or under their supervision. The lowest possible dose for adequate anaesthesia should be used.
Maximum recommended doses: Xylocaine 20 mg/ml, 20 ml (400 mg lidocaine hydrochloride).
Table 1 Dosage Recommendations, is a guide to dosage for the more commonly used techniques in the average adult. The clinician's experience and knowledge of the patient's physical status are of importance in calculating the required dose. When prolonged blocks are used, e.g., by repeated administration, the risks of reaching a toxic plasma concentration or inducing a local neural injury must be considered. (See Table 1.)

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The doses given in the table are those considered to be necessary to produce successful blocks and should be regarded as a guide for use in adults. Individual variations in onset and duration occur. The figures reflect the expected average dose range needed. Standard textbooks should be consulted for factors affecting specific block techniques and for individual patient requirements.
Unnecessarily high doses of local anaesthetics are to be avoided. In general, surgical anaesthesia requires the use of the higher concentrations and doses. When blocking smaller nerves, or when a less intense block is required, the use of a lower concentration is indicated. The volume of drug used will affect the extent and spread of anaesthesia.
In order to avoid intravascular injection, aspiration should be repeated prior to and during administration of the main dose, which should be injected slowly or in incremental doses, at a rate of 100-200 mg/min, while closely observing the patient's vital functions and maintaining verbal contact. An inadvertent intravascular injection may be recognised by a temporary increase in heart rate and an accidental intrathecal injection by signs of a spinal block. If toxic symptoms occur, the injection should be stopped immediately.
The doses should be reduced for children and patients in reduced general condition.
Polyamp: The lowest dosage and volume that results in effective anaesthesia should be used and should be based on the status of the patient and the type of regional anaesthesia intended. XYLOCAINE solutions contain no antimicrobial agent and should be used only once and any residue discarded.
Lignocaine should be administered with great caution to patients with impaired cardiovascular function as they may be less able to compensate for functional changes associated with the prolongation of AV conduction produced by these drugs.
Adult: RECOMMENDED DOSAGES FOR XYLOCAINE PLAIN SOLUTIONS FOR VARIOUS ANAESTHETIC PROCEDURES IN THE AVERAGE, HEALTHY, 70 KG ADULT PATIENT. (See Table 2.)

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Note: Recommended Doses: The previously suggested concentrations and volumes serve only as a guide. Toxic doses vary widely between patients and toxic effects may occur after any local anaesthetic procedure.
Careful observation of the patient must therefore be maintained. It is recommended that the dose of lignocaine at any one time should not exceed 3 mg/kg (plain solutions) However, the dose administered must be tailored to the individual patient and procedure, and the maximum doses here quoted should be used as a guide only.
Hypotension: During thoracic, lumbar and caudal epidural anaesthesia, a marked fall in blood pressure and/or intercostal paralysis may be seen, possibly due to the use of excessive doses, improper positioning of the patient or accidental disposition of the anaesthetic within the subarachnoid space. Hypotension and bradycardia may occur as a result of sympathetic blockade.
Test dose: For epidural anaesthesia, a 3 - 5 mL test dose of a local anaesthetic solution should be administered. Verbal contact and repeated monitoring of heart rate and blood pressure should be maintained for 5 minutes after the test dose after which, in the absence of signs of subarachnoid or intravascular injection, the main dose may be administered.
Prior to administration of the total dose, aspiration should be repeated. The main dose should be injected slowly, with continual assessment of the patient. If toxic symptoms or signs occur, the injection should be stopped immediately.
Use in Children: For children, a reduced dosage based on body weight or surface area should be used. The dosage should be calculated for each patient individually and modified in accordance with the physician's experience and knowledge of the patient.
In children, early signs of local anaesthetic toxicity may be difficult to detect in cases where the block is given during general anaesthesia.
Use in Elderly: A reduction in dosage may be necessary for elderly patients especially those with compromised cardiovascular and/or hepatic function.
In epidural anaesthesia, a smaller dose may provide adequate anaesthesia.
With impaired hepatic function: Although lignocaine is metabolised by the liver, dosage reduction for local anaesthesia is probably not warranted. However, caution should be exercised with repeated doses.
With impaired renal function: Impairment of renal function is unlikely to affect lignocaine clearance in the short term (24 hours). However, toxicity due to accumulation may develop with prolonged or repeated administration.

MDV: Accidental intravascular injections of local anaesthetics can cause immediate system-toxic reactions (within seconds to a few minutes). Signs of system toxicity in cases of overdose occur later (15-60 minutes after injection) due to a slower increase in the concentration of local anaesthetic in the blood (see Adverse Reactions).
Toxicity: Oral administration: Less than 50 mg seems not impose any risk for toddlers. 75 mg to a 2 years old child caused a mild, 100 mg to a 5 months old child cause serious, 300 + 300 mg within 4 hours to a 3½ years old child caused serious to very serious, 400-500 mg to a 2 year old child and 1 g during 12 hours to a 1 year old child caused very serious intoxication. 600 mg to an adult caused mild, 2 g to an adult caused moderate intoxication.
Parenteral administration: 50 mg intravenously to a 1 month old child caused very severe intoxication. 200-400 mg infiltration to an adult caused serious, 500 mg to an 80 year old patient and 1 g intravenously to adults caused very severe intoxication.
Topical administration: 8.6-17.2 mg/kg BW to toddlers when used on burn injured skin caused serious intoxication.
Symptoms: First CNS excitation, later CNS depression. When exposed for large doses the first symptom can be rapidly developing seizures. Agitation, dizziness, visual disturbances, perioral paresthesia, nausea. Later ataxia, auditory disturbances, euphoria, confusion, speech difficulties, paleness, sweating, tremor, seizures, coma, apnoea. Different kinds of arrhythmias especially bradycardial arrhythmias but also if exposed to large doses ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation, QRS prolongation, atrio-ventricular block. Cardiac failure, hypotension (rare cases of methaemoglobinaemia are described).
Treatment: If oral exposure, active charcoal. (Provoking vomiting may be hazardous due to anaesthesia of the mucous membrane and the risk for seizures in the early phase.
If ventricular lavage is indicated, this should be done with a ventricular tube after tracheal intubation.)
Seizures are treated with diazepam. Oxygen.
If needed tracheal intubation and controlled respiration (if needed hyperventilation). Bradycardia is treated with atropine. Circulatory deterioration is treated with fluids administrated intravenously, dobutamine and if needed epinephrine (initially 0.05 microgram/kg BW/min, to be increased if needed by 0.05 microgram/kg BW/min each 10 minutes), in more severe cases guided by haemodynamic monitoring. Ephedrine may also be tried. If circulatory arrest, resuscitation efforts for several hours may be indicated.
Polyamp: Symptoms: Acute emergencies associated with the use of local anaesthetics are generally related to high plasma levels or to unintended subarachnoid injection of the local anaesthetic solution (see ADVERSE REACTIONS and PRECAUTIONS).
With accidental intravascular injections, the toxic effect will be obvious within 1 - 3 min. With overdosage, peak plasma concentrations may not be reached for 20 - 30 min depending on the site of injection and toxic signs will be delayed. Toxic reactions mainly involve the central nervous and cardiovascular systems.
In children, early signs of local anaesthetic toxicity may be difficult to detect in cases where the block is given during general anaesthesia.
Symptoms of acute toxicity: Central nervous system toxicity is a graded response with symptoms and signs of escalating severity. The first symptoms are circumoral paraesthesia, numbness of the tongue, light-headedness, hyperacusis and tinnitus. Visual disturbance and muscular tremors are more serious and precede the onset of generalised convulsions. These signs must not be mistaken for neurotic behaviour.
Unconsciousness and grand mal convulsions may follow. These may last from a few seconds to several minutes. Hypoxia and hypercarbia occur rapidly following convulsions due to the increased muscular activity, together with the interference with normal respiration and loss of the airway. In severe cases, apnoea may occur. Acidosis increases the toxic effects of local anaesthetics.
Recovery is due to redistribution of the local anaesthetic drug from the central nervous system and metabolism. Recovery may be rapid unless large amounts of the drug have been injected.
Cardiovascular toxicity indicates a more severe situation. Hypotension, bradycardia, decreased cardiac output, heart block, arrhythmia and even ventricular arrhythmias, ventricular fibrillation and cardiac arrest may occur as a result of huge systemic concentrations of local anaesthetics.
Cardiovascular toxic effects are generally preceded by signs of toxicity in the central nervous system, unless the patient is receiving a general anaesthetic or is heavily sedated with drugs such as a benzodiazepine or a barbiturate. In rare cases, cardiac arrest has occurred without prodromal CNS effects.
Treatment of overdosage: If signs of acute systemic toxicity appear injection of the local anaesthetic should be stopped immediately. If convulsions occur then immediate attention is required for the maintenance of a patent airway and assisted or controlled ventilation with oxygen, via a positive airway pressure delivery system mask. Adequacy of the circulation should then be evaluated, bearing in mind that drugs used to treat convulsions depress the circulation when administered intravenously.
Should convulsions persist despite adequate respiratory support, and if the status of the circulation permits, appropriate anticonvulsant medication such as an ultra-short acting barbiturate (e.g. thiopentone) or a benzodiazepine (e.g. diazepam) may be administered IV. The clinician should be familiar with these anticonvulsant drugs prior to use of local anaesthetics.
Suxamethonium will stop the muscle convulsions rapidly but will require tracheal intubation and controlled ventilation, and should only be used by those familiar with these procedures.
If ventricular fibrillation or cardiac arrest occurs, effective cardiovascular resuscitation treatment must be instituted and maintained for a prolonged period if necessary. Optimal oxygenation and ventilation, and circulatory support as well as treatment of acidosis are of vital importance.
If cardiovascular depression occurs (hypotension, bradycardia), appropriate treatment with intravenous fluids, vasopressor, chronotropic and or inotropic agents should be considered. Children should be given doses commensurate with age and weight.
Dialysis is of negligible value in the treatment of acute overdosage with lignocaine.

MDV: Hypersensitivity to local anaesthetics of the amide type or to other components of the product.
Xylocaine solution for injection with preservatives should not be used in patients who are hypersensitive to methyl and/or propyl parahydroxybensoate (methyl-/propyl paraben), or to their metabolite para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA).
Xylocaine solution for injection with preservatives should be avoided in patients allergic to ester local anaesthetics that also has the metabolite PABA.
Polyamp: Allergy or hypersensitivity to amide type local anaesthetics or to any excipients. Detection of suspected hypersensitivity by skin testing is of limited value.
Local anaesthetics are contraindicated for epidural and spinal anaesthesia in patients with uncorrected hypotension or coagulation disorders or in patients receiving anti-coagulation treatment.
Local anaesthetic techniques must not be used when there is inflammation and/or sepsis in the region of the proposed injection and/or in the presence of septicaemia.
General contraindications related to epidural anaesthesia, regardless of the local anaesthetic used, should be taken into account.

MDV: Regional or local anaesthetic procedures, except those of the most trivial nature, should always be carried out in the proximity of resuscitation equipment.
Before major blocks, an intravenous cannula should be inserted before the local anaesthetic is injected.
Like all local anaesthetic agents, lidocaine can cause acute central nervous and cardiovascular toxic effects in cases of use that leads to high concentrations in the blood. This applies particularly after inadvertent intravascular administration.
Caution should be exercised in patients of the following categories: Elderly, and patients with generally reduced general condition; Patients with degree II or III AV block since local anaesthetics can lower the conduction capacity of the myocardium; Patients with severe hepatic disease or severely impaired renal function; Patients treated with class III anti-arrhythmic drugs (e.g. amiodarone) should be closely observed and ECG monitoring should be considered, since the cardiac effects of lidocaine and class III anti-arrhythmic drugs can be additive (see also Interactions).
Some regional anaesthesia techniques may be associated with severe adverse reactions, as indicated as follows: Retrobulbar injections can in rare cases reach the cranial subarachnoid space and cause e.g. temporary blindness, cardiovascular collapse, apnoea and convulsions. These symptoms must be treated immediately.
Retro- and peribulbar injections with local anaesthetics involve some risk of persistent ocular muscle dysfunction. The primary causes include trauma and/or local toxic effects on muscles and/or nerves. The severity of such tissue reactions is related to the degree of trauma, the concentration of the local anaesthetic, and the duration of exposure of the tissue to the local anaesthetic. For this reason, as with all local anaesthetics, the lowest effective concentration and dose of local anaesthetic should be used. Vasoconstrictors may aggravate tissue reactions and should be used only when indicated.
There have been post-marketing reports of chondrolysis in patients receiving post-operative intra-articular continuous infusion of local anaesthetics. The majority of reported cases of chondrolysis have involved the shoulder joint. Due to multiple contributing factors and inconsistency in the scientific literature regarding the mechanism of action, causality has not been established. Intra-articular continuous infusion is not an approved indication for Xylocaine.
The prime causes are traumatic nerve injury and/or local toxic effect on muscles and nerves by injected local anaesthetic. The extent of this tissue damage depends on the degree of trauma, the concentration of the local anaesthetic, and the duration of exposure to the local anaesthetic. For this reason, the lowest effective dose should be chosen.
Inadvertent intravascular injection in the head and neck regions can cause cerebral symptoms even with low doses.
Xylocaine solution for injection is probably porphyrinogenic and should only be prescribed to patients with acute porphyria if there are very strong reasons. Appropriate precautions should be taken for all porphyric patients.
Xylocaine solution for injection, in multidose vials containing methyl parahydroxybenzoate (methylparaben) as preservative and should therefore not be used for anaesthesia by the intrathecal, intracisternal or intra- or retrobulbar routes.
Polyamp: When any local anaesthetic agent is used, resuscitative equipment and drugs, including oxygen, should be immediately available in order to manage possible adverse reactions involving the cardiovascular, respiratory or central nervous systems. Because of the possibility of hypotension and bradycardia following major blocks, an IV cannula should be inserted before the local anaesthetic is injected.
Delay in proper management of dose-related toxicity, under-ventilation from any cause and/or altered sensitivity may lead to the development of acidosis, cardiac arrest and death.
Injection should always be made slowly with frequent aspirations to avoid inadvertent intravascular injection which can produce cerebral symptoms even at low doses.
Although intra-articular continuous infusions of local anaesthetics following arthroscopic and other surgical procedures is an unapproved use, there have been post-marketing reports of chondrolysis in patients receiving such infusions. The majority of reported cases of chondrolysis have involved the shoulder joint; cases of gleno-humeral chondrolysis have been described in paediatric and adult patients following intra-articular continuous infusions of local anaesthetics for periods of 48 to 72 hours. There is insufficient information to determine whether shorter infusion periods are not associated with these findings. The time of onset of symptoms, such as joint pain, stiffness and loss of motion can be variable, but may begin as early as the 2nd month after surgery. Currently, there is no effective treatment for chondrolysis; patients who experienced chondrolysis have required additional diagnostic and therapeutic procedures and some required arthroplasty or shoulder replacement. Therefore, xylocaine should not be used for post-operative intra-articular continuous infusion.
Careful and constant monitoring of cardiovascular and respiratory vital signs and the patient's state of consciousness should be accomplished after each local anaesthetic injection. It should be kept in mind that at such times restlessness, anxiety, tinnitus, dizziness, blurred vision, tremors, depression or drowsiness may be early warning signs of CNS toxicity.
LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARINS AND HEPARINOIDS (Spinal/Epidural Haematomas): When neuraxial anaesthesia (epidural/spinal anaesthesia) is employed, patients anticoagulated or scheduled to be anticoagulated with low molecular weight heparins or heparinoids are at risk of developing an epidural or spinal haematoma which can result in long- term or permanent paralysis. The risk of these events is increased by the use of indwelling epidural catheters, traumatic or repeated epidural/spinal puncture, and the concomitant use of drugs affecting haemostasis such as NSAID, platelet inhibitors or other anticoagulants. Patients should be frequently monitored for signs and symptoms of neurological impairment.
The safety and effectiveness of XYLOCAINE depends on proper dosage, correct technique and adequate precautions. Standard textbooks should be consulted regarding specific techniques and precautions for various regional anaesthetic procedures.
The lowest dosage that results in effective anaesthesia should be used (see DOSAGE & ADMINISTRATION). Repeated injection of XYLOCAINE may cause accumulation of lignocaine or its metabolites and result in toxic effects.
Tolerance to elevated blood levels varies with the status of the patient. Elderly, young or debilitated patients, including those with advanced liver disease or severe renal dysfunction, should be given reduced doses commensurate with their age and physical condition.
Lignocaine should be given with great caution to patients with epilepsy, impaired cardiac conduction, bradycardia, severe shock or digitalis intoxication. Lignocaine should also be administered with great caution to patients with impaired cardiovascular function as they may be less able to compensate for functional changes associated with the prolongation of AV conduction produced by these drugs. In patients with Stokes-Adams syndrome or Wolff- Parkinson-White syndrome extreme care should be taken to avoid accidental arterio-venous injection.
Central nerve blocks may cause cardiovascular depression, especially in the presence of hypovolaemia. Epidural anaesthesia should be used with caution in patients with impaired cardiovascular function. Epidural anaesthesia may lead to hypotension and bradycardia. Hypotension should be treated promptly with a sympathomimetic intravenously and repeated as necessary.
Local anaesthetics should be given with great caution (if at all) to patients with pre-existing abnormal neurological pathology, e.g. myasthenia gravis. Use with extreme caution in epidural, caudal and spinal anaesthesia when there are serious diseases of the CNS or of the spinal cord, e.g. meningitis, spinal fluid block, cranial or spinal haemorrhage, tumours, poliomyelitis, syphilis, tuberculosis or metastatic lesions of the spinal cord.
Since lignocaine is metabolised in the liver and excreted via the kidneys, the possibility of drug accumulation should be considered in patients with hepatic and/or renal impairment (see DOSAGE & ADMINISTRATION).
Inadvertent intravascular or subarachnoid injection of small doses of local anaesthetics injected into the head and neck area, including retrobulbar, dental and stellate ganglion blocks, may produce adverse reactions similar to systemic toxicity seen with unintentional intravascular injections of larger doses.
Clinicians who perform retrobulbar blocks should be aware that there have been reports of cardiovascular collapse and apnoea following the use of local anaesthetic injections for retrobulbar block. Prior to retrobulbar block, necessary equipment, drugs and personnel should be immediately available as with all other regional procedures. Retrobulbar injections may very occasionally reach the subarachnoid space, causing temporary blindness, cardiovascular collapse, apnoea, convulsions etc. These must be diagnosed and treated promptly.
Retro- and peribulbar injections of local anaesthetics carry a low risk of persistent ocular muscle dysfunction. The primary causes include trauma and/or local toxic effects on muscles or nerves. The severity of such tissue reactions is related to the degree of trauma, the concentration of the local anaesthetic and the duration of exposure of the tissue to the local anaesthetic. For this reason, as with all local anaesthetics, the lowest effective concentration and dose of local anaesthetic should be used. Vasoconstrictors may aggravate tissue reactions and should be used only when indicated.
Foetal bradycardia/tachycardia frequently follows paracervical block and may be associated with fetal acidosis and hypoxia. Occasional cases of perinatal morbidity and mortality have been reported. When the recommended dose is exceeded the risk of fetal bradycardia increases. Careful monitoring of the fetal heart rate is necessary.
Lignocaine should be used with caution in patients with known drug sensitivities.
Patients being treated with anti-arrhythmic drugs class III (e.g. amiodarone) should be under close surveillance and ECG monitoring since cardiac effects may be additive.
Xylocaine Plain solutions for injection are probably porphyrinogenic and should only be prescribed to patients with acute porphyria on strong or urgent indications. Appropriate precautions should be taken for all porphyric patients.
Effects on ability to drive and use machines: MDV: Depending on the dose and method of administration, lidocaine can have a transient effect on movement and coordination.
Polyamp: Depending on dosage, local anaesthetics may have a very mild effect on mental function and may temporarily impair locomotion and coordination.
Carcinogenicity/Mutagenicity/Impairment of Fertility: Polyamp: A two-year oral toxicity study of 2,6-xylidine, a metabolite of lignocaine, has shown that in both male and female rats, 2-6-xylidine in daily doses of 900 mg/m² (150 mg/kg) resulted in carcinomas and adenomas of the nasal cavity. No nasal tumours were observed in the low dose (15 mg/kg or control animals). In addition, the compound also caused subcutaneous fibromas and or fibrosarcomas in male and female rats (significant at 150 mg/kg).
The genotoxic potential of 2,6-xylidine has been studied with mixed results: Positive results were reported in assays for gene mutations (weakly positive in the Ames test with metabolic activation and in the mouse lymphoma assay) and chromosomal damage (chromosomal aberrations in Chinese hamster ovary cells at concentrations at which the drug precipitated from solution). No evidence of genotoxicity was found in in vivo assays for chromosomal damage (micronucleus assay) and DNA damage (unscheduled DNA synthesis). Covalent binding studies of DNA from liver and ethmoid turbinates in rats indicate that 2,6-xylidine may be genotoxic under certain conditions in vivo.

MDV: Adequate data from treatment of pregnant women is unavailable.
Lidocaine passes the placenta. It is reasonable to assume that a large number of pregnant women and women of child-bearing age have been given lidocaine. No specific disturbances to the reproductive process have so far been reported, e.g., no increased incidence of malformations, or direct or indirect effect on the foetus. However, the risks for human are not completely investigated.
At temporary use during pregnancy and labour, the benefit is judged to overweigh the possible risks.
Paracervical blockade or pudendal blockade with lidocaine increases the risk for reactions of the foetus, such as bradycardia/tachycardia. Therefore, the heart rate of the foetus must be carefully monitored. See also Pharmacology: Pharmacokinetics under Actions.
Lactation: Lidocaine is excreted into breastmilk in small amounts.
The use of Xylocaine at recommended doses is unlikely to affect the neonate. Breastfeeding can therefore be continued during use of Xylocaine.
Polyamp: Use in Pregnancy - Category A: The safe use of lignocaine during pregnancy has not been established. Although lignocaine has been used extensively for surgical procedures during pregnancy with no reports of ill effects to mother or fetus, there are no adequate or well-controlled studies in pregnant women of the effect of lignocaine on the developing foetus.
Lignocaine has been effectively used for obstetrical analgesia and adverse effects on the course of labour or delivery are rare. After epidural administration of lignocaine to women in labour, lignocaine crosses the placental barrier. However, concentrations in umbilical veins are lower than those found in the maternal circulation. It has been suggested that blood glucose levels should be checked in newborns after obstetric regional anaesthesia.
Use during Lactation: Lignocaine passes into breast milk. The amount of lignocaine appearing in breast milk from a nursing mother receiving parenteral lignocaine is unlikely to lead to a significant accumulation of the parent drug in the breast-fed infant. The remote possibility of an idiosyncratic or allergic reaction in the breast-fed infant from lignocaine remains to be determined.

MDV: Undesirable effects caused by the product itself can be difficult to distinguish from the physiological effects of the nerve block (e.g. fall in blood pressure, bradycardia), events caused directly by the needle puncture (e.g. nerve damage) or caused indirectly by the needle puncture. (See Table 3.)

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Polyamp: Adverse experiences following the administration of lignocaine are similar in nature to those observed with other amide local anaesthetic agents. These adverse experiences are, in general, dose-related and may result from high plasma levels caused by excessive dosage or rapid absorption, or may result from a hypersensitivity, idiosyncrasy or diminished tolerance on the part of the patient.
Serious adverse experiences are generally systemic in nature. The following types are those most commonly reported: Central nervous system: CNS manifestations are excitatory and/or depressant and may be characterised by light-headedness, nervousness, apprehension, euphoria, confusion, dizziness, drowsiness, tinnitus, hyperacusis, blurred vision, vomiting, sensations of heat, cold or numbness, twitching, tremors, convulsions, unconsciousness, respiratory depression and/or arrest, agitation, difficulty swallowing, paraesthesia circumoral, numbness of the tongue and slurred speech.
The excitatory manifestations may be very brief or may not occur at all, in which case the first manifestation of toxicity may be drowsiness merging into unconsciousness and respiratory arrest. Drowsiness following administration of lignocaine is usually an early sign of a high blood level of the drug and may occur as a result of rapid absorption. In unconscious patients, circulatory collapse should be watched for as CNS effects may not be apparent, as an early manifestation of toxicity may in some cases progress to frank convulsions and ultimately lead to respiratory depression and/or arrest. It is crucial to have resuscitative equipment and anticonvulsant drugs available to manage such patients. (see Treatment of overdosage under OVERDOSAGE).
Cardiovascular: Cardiovascular manifestations are usually depressant and are characterised by bradycardia, hypotension, and cardiovascular collapse, which may lead to cardiac arrest.
Cardiac arrhythmias and hypertension have also been observed.
Methaemoglobinaemia can occur following IV administration.
Cardiovascular toxic effects are generally preceded by signs of toxicity in the central nervous system, unless the patient is receiving a general anaesthetic or is heavily sedated with drugs such as benzodiazepine or a barbiturate. In rare cases, cardiac arrest has occurred without prodromal CNS effects.
In children, early signs of local anaesthetic toxicity may be difficult to detect in cases where the block is given during general anaesthesia.
Haemodynamic: Regional anaesthesia may lead to maternal hypotension.
Allergic: Allergic reactions are characterised by cutaneous lesions, urticaria, oedema or anaphylactoid reactions/shock.
Allergy to amide type local anaesthetics is rare.
The detection of sensitivity by skin testing is of doubtful value.
Neurologic: The incidences of adverse reactions associated with the use of local anaesthetics may be related to the total dose of local anaesthetic administered and are also dependent on the particular drug used, the route of administration and the physical status of the patient.
Neurological reactions following regional nerve blocks have included persistent numbness, paraethesia and other sensory disturbances.
In a prospective review of 10,440 patients who received lignocaine for spinal anaesthesia, the incidences were reported to be about 3% each for positional headaches, hypotension and backache; 2% for shivering; and less than 1% each for peripheral nerve symptoms, nausea, respiratory inadequacy and double vision. Many of these observations may be related to local anaesthetic techniques, with or without a contribution from the local anaesthetic.
In the practice of caudal or lumbar epidural block, occasional unintentional penetration of the subarachnoid space by the catheter may occur. Subsequent adverse effects may depend partially on the amount of drug administered subdurally.
These may include spinal block of varying magnitude (including total spinal block), hypotension secondary to spinal block, loss of bladder and bowel control and loss of perineal sensation and sexual function. Persistent motor, sensory and/or autonomic (sphincter control) deficit of some lower spinal segments with slow recovery (several months) or incomplete recovery have been reported in rare instances when caudal or lumbar epidural block has been attempted. Backache and headache have also been noted following use of these anaesthetic procedures.
Peripheral nerve injury and arachnoiditis have been observed.

MDV: Lidocaine should be used with caution in patients receiving other local anaesthetics or agents structurally related to amide-type local anaesthetics e.g. certain anti-arrhythmics, such as mexilitine and tocainide, since the systemic toxic effects are additive. Specific interaction studies with lidocaine and anti-arrhythmic drugs class III (e.g. amiodarone) have not been performed, but caution is advised (see also Precautions).
Drugs that inhibits the metabolism of lidocaine (e.g. cimetidine) may cause potentially toxic plasma concentrations when lidocaine is given in repeated high doses over a long time period. Such interactions are of no clinical importance following short-term treatment with lidocaine at recommended doses.
Lidocaine should be used with caution with other local anaesthetics or class IB anti-arrhythmic drugs, as the toxic effects are additive.
Polyamp: Anti-arrhythmic drugs: Local anaesthetics of the amide type, such as lignocaine, should be used with caution in patients receiving other local anaesthetics or agents structurally related to amide-type local anaesthetics e.g. certain anti-arrhythmic drugs such as disopyramide, procainamide, mexilitene since potentiation of cardiac effects may occur. Specific interaction studies with lignocaine and anti-arrhythmic drugs class III (eg amiodarone) have not been performed, but caution should be advised (see PRECAUTIONS).
Amiodarone: Amiodarone has been reported to reduce the clearance of lignocaine in two case reports, although a small prospective study of combined therapy on lignocaine pharmacokinetics found no change in clearance or other pharmacokinetic factor. This combination has been reported to precipitate seizures and to lead to severe sinus bradycardia and a long sinoatrial arrest. Until more experience with concurrent use of lignocaine and amiodarone becomes available, patients receiving the combination should be monitored carefully.
Beta-adrenoreceptor antagonists: Propranolol and metoprolol reduce the metabolism of IV administered lignocaine and the possibility of this effect with other beta-adrenergic blockers should be kept in mind. If these drugs are administered concurrently, the patient should be closely observed for signs of lignocaine toxicity.
Cimetidine: Cimetidine reduces the clearance of IV administered lignocaine and toxic effects due to high serum lignocaine levels have been reported when these two drugs have been administered concurrently.
Anticonvulsive agents: Phenytoin and other antiepileptic drugs such as phenobarbitone, primidone and carbamazepine appear to enhance the metabolism of lignocaine but the significance of this effect is not known. Phenytoin and lignocaine have additive cardiac depressant effects.
Inhalational anaesthetics: Lignocaine decreases the minimum effective concentration of inhalational anaesthetics, e.g. nitrous oxide.
Skeletal muscle relaxants: Lignocaine and skeletal muscle relaxants, e.g. suxamethonium, lead to excessive neuromuscular blockade; therefore this combination must be used with caution.
Structurally related local anaesthetics: Lignocaine should be used with caution in patients receiving agents structurally related to local anaesthetics.
Alkaline solutions: The solubility of lignocaine is limited at pH values above 7.0. This must be taken into consideration if adding an alkaline solution since precipitation might occur at higher pH values.
Laboratory test effects: Creatinine: Creatinine measurements in patients with therapeutic plasma levels of lignocaine are about 15 - 35% higher when measured by an enzymatic method versus the Jaffé method. This appears to be due to assay interference from N-ethylglycine, a metabolite of lignocaine.
Creatine kinase: The intramuscular injection of lignocaine may result in an increase in creatine kinase levels for up to 48 hrs. This may interfere with the diagnosis of myocardial infarction.

Incompatibilities: MDV: Alkalinisation can cause precipitation as lidocaine is limitedly soluble at pH above 6.5.
Instructions for use and handling, and for disposal: MDV: Resterilisation of Xylocaine is not recommended.
Appropriate control procedures to prevent contamination should be employed, including the following: use of single-use sterile injecting equipment; use a sterile needle and syringe for each new insertion into the vial; rule out the introduction of contaminated material or fluid into a multidose vial.

MDV: Do not store above 30°C. Do not freeze.
Polyamp: 5 mL Polyamp presentations should be stored below 30°C.
Shelf-Life: MDV: The multidose vials should not be used for more than three days after the container has been opened for the first time.
Polyamp: Solutions showing discolouration and unused portions of solutions from ampoules and single dose vials should be discarded. Surface sterilisation using pure, undiluted isopropyl alcohol (91%) or 70% ethyl alcohol (USP) may be carried out if desired.

Anaesthetics - Local & General

N01BB02 - lidocaine ; Belongs to the class of amides. Used as local anesthetics.

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